Norway’s Potential to Ethicize the EU’s Phosphate Sourcing Hinges on Spain’s Cooperation

Bou Craa conveyor belt from the phosphate mine. Photo courtesy of JB Dodane. 

To the unsuspecting eye, phosphate might look like any commonplace rock. But for global leaders, this mineral presents a pathway to a sustainable future, the solution to food insecurity, and a moral quandary. Spain’s renegade surge in importation of Moroccan phosphate, despite indigenous rights to the resource, diverges from the European Union’s firm stance on ethical sourcing. Fortunately, amid this disappointing trend, a recent discovery from the fjords of Norway presents a promising solution, but one that we mustn’t approach with excessive optimism.

When soil is deficient in phosphorus, an essential nutrient for plant growth, food production is limited. It is therefore no surprise that phosphate, a natural source of phosphorus, has become the lifeblood of modern, high-yield farming, responsible for 40 to 60% of the world’s food production. Without supplementation by phosphate fertilizers, crop yields plummet and food production fails to meet the needs of a burgeoning world population.

Yet, this essential mineral’s indispensability extends far beyond agricultural landscapes to the renewable energy sector as well. Recently, it has ascended as a strategic asset in the cathodes of a recent generation of lithium-iron-phosphate (LFP) batteries, which are developed for electric vehicles. While LFP batteries offer slightly lower energy densities than alternatives using nickel and cobalt cathodes, they compensate through substantially lower costs and faster charging times. Currently, 30% of the world’s new electric vehicles use LFP batteries, and their market is forecast to expand substantially in the next ten years. 

The European Union has classified phosphate as a critical raw material (CRM) since 2014, signifying its pivotal role in the integrity of a broad range of industrial ecosystems and a more sustainable energy future. However, historically bereft of its reserves, the EU finds itself beholden to other countries to source this critical mineral. 

The bloc’s external dependency on imports puts them at the mercy of geopolitical upheavals, such as those played out with Russia. Traditionally, the EU has maintained a steady supply of phosphate from its eastern neighbor, but after implementing economic sanctions on Russia in response to the invasion of Ukraine, Russia halted exports of fertilizer, causing a subsequent spike in prices. As the cost of phosphate surged by 38% in Spring 2022, the EU was forced to find an alternative avenue to ensure food security. Attention swiftly turned to Morocco, home to the world’s largest phosphate rock reserve, which accounts for approximately 70% of the world’s total supply. In 2021, Morocco’s phosphate reserve generated $850 million and was the country’s third-largest export.

Morocco has the resources to safeguard the EU’s food security and advance sustainability objectives, but the state’s illegal extraction of phosphate by the state-owned company OCP (formerly the Office Chérifien des Phosphates) in disputed Western Saharan territory presents alarming ethical concerns. This controversy has a long-standing history, beginning in 1975, when Morocco annexed the territory from Spain, disregarding the claims of the indigenous Sahrawi people, a multi-ethnic population with mixed Berber, Arab, and black African descent. In 1991, Morocco and the Polisario Front, the political group representing the Sahrawi, agreed to a United Nations-brokered ceasefire to prepare for a referendum on self-determination, but the vote never materialized. Morocco has since declared illegitimate sovereignty over the region.

Amid the Polisario Front’s protracted struggle for self-determination, Morocco maintains its control over the Sahrawi’s ancestral land, plundering it for economic gain. Bou Craa, a mine in West Saharan territory owned by OCP, accounts for approximately 10% of Morocco’s phosphate and 20% of OCP’s total exports. The Saharawi people have consistently voiced opposition to the trade. 

Fortunately, this past summer, another unforeseen path to ethically sourced phosphate emerged: Norway. Anglo-Norwegian mining company Norge Mining discovered reserves totaling at least 70 billion tons in southwest Norway. Given that the current known world reserves total 71 billion tons, this revelation is significant. Norway’s minister of trade and industry has announced plans to fast-track the construction of a mine—which would incorporate carbon capture and storage technology to offset the carbon intensity of phosphate production—with hopes to begin operation by 2028. The discovery of phosphate reserves in Norway, coupled with plans for expedited mining operations and the implementation of net-zero manufacturing, signifies a promising alternative for the European market. While it might not entirely halt OCP’s exploitation of West Saharan phosphate, by decreasing reliance on Morocco, this discovery lays the groundwork for a more balanced and sustainable European market for phosphate, reducing vulnerability to geopolitical conflicts and controversies surrounding the sourcing of this vital mineral.

Over the past year, the EU has increased its importation of Moroccan phosphate—despite broad international disapproval—making Norway’s reserves all the more crucial. The UN has made it clear that any further exploration and exploitation activities in Western Sahara, without regard for the interests and desires of the Sahrawi people, would breach international law. A series of rulings in the European Court of Justice further affirm the Sahrawi people’s right to consent to economic activities, yet Morocco still accounts for 50% of Europe’s imports. The biggest culprit of this increased importation is Spain, the colonial leader of Western Sahara which unilaterally recognized Morocco’s sovereignty over the region in 2022. This controversial decision aimed to pacify Morocco after it lifted border surveillance resulting in a surge of migrants in retaliation for Spain giving medical treatment to the leader of the Sahrawi’s Polisario Front, Brahim Ghali. 

It is also critical to consider the potential role of Morocco’s phosphate as a tool for political and economic leverage, especially for Spain, whose companies are embedded throughout the Western Saharan phosphorus supply chain. This involvement is underscored by OCP’s exclusive reliance on wind turbine energy from the Spanish company Siemens Gamesa Renewable Energy to extract West Saharan phosphate. Moreover, the legal justification for the trade originates from a Spanish law firm, Palacio y Asociados. The firm teamed up with another law firm, DLA Piper, to provide OCP with a legal opinion to justify the trade, citing potential benefits to the local population in unpublished reports. Notably, Palacio y Asociados is headed by Spain’s former Minister of Foreign Affairs and former Member of the European Parliament Ana Palacio, who currently sits on the international advisory board of OCP.

Spain’s investment in OCP’s extraction endeavors decreases the likelihood of Norwegian phosphate acting as a panacea to end the EU’s importation of Moroccan phosphate. So while it is tempting to view it as such, the complexity of addressing sourcing issues must be acknowledged.   

In response to the increased importation of illegally extracted Moroccan phosphate, the European Parliament has deliberated on expanding the scope of the Conflict Minerals Regulation to include Western Saharan phosphates. Such a move would require that EU companies exclusively attain phosphate from “responsible and conflict-free sources only.” However, despite discussions within the European Parliament to expand regulation, the absence of implemented amendments makes it difficult to foresee their tangible effects on trade or ensure proper enforcement. While Norway remains in the early stages of extracting its newfound phosphate, it has the potential to be a “responsible and conflict-free source.” This being said, whether it could stop or slow the illegal extraction in Morocco remains unclear. 

As Spain finds itself entangled in the Western Saharan phosphate trade, there remains a glimmer of hope for a sustainable and ethically sourced future. Norway’s newly discovered reserves, backed by its commitment to sustainable practices, is a promising prospect for the EU. However, it is crucial to acknowledge that discovery is only the first step on a long road toward production. In the meantime, Spain’s continued sourcing of West Saharan phosphate will likely endure, if not increase. So long as the trade occurs without the Sahrawi peoples’ consent, it will entrench the challenges they face for self-determination and further perpetuate the cycle of resource exploitation.

Charlotte Guy (BC ’26) is a staff writer at CPR majoring in political science and human rights.